OUGD 504 - Studio Brief 1
Content for my Design For Print book:
As I now have my concept for my Design For Print book sorted, I need to gather my content so that I can actually produce my book. Thinking about my concept, creating a dictionary to give people the vocabulary to research for themselves, I looked through various books to get an idea of what print is all about and the words that are used to describe it. These are the books that I looked at, as well as the words and terms that I collected from each:
Basics Design 06: Print & Finish -
The Visual Dictionary of Pre-Press & Production -
I have then gone through all of these words and picked out the ones that are more related to print, as opposed to graphic design in general. (These have been highlighted) This allows me to only include the words and terms that are used when talking about print, instead of just using terms that are more widely associated with graphic design as a whole. I would also be including the obvious things within my book such as:
I then started thinking about the other terms that I had decided not to use, and thought that although they don't directly relate to print these terms could still be useful in terms of the actual designing for print.
I then continued looking at existing publications, thinking about the type of book that I am aiming to achieve. I am creating a dictionary, which normally are extremely text heavy that rarely include any images or colour. They are arranged in alphabetical order with tabs on the edge of the page in order to make it as easy as possible to use. However, most books involve chapters in order to chronologically arrange the books content, this being something that could help the organisation of my own content. If I was to include the use of chapters, I could then include other terms that aren't exclusively related to print but do actually help inform the actual designing of print. I could combine these two methods of arranging my content in order to include the most content possible whilst also making it as easy as possible to use; chapters to arrange content in chronological order, each chapters content then being in alphabetical order with tabs to improve functionality.
When thinking about this, considering the arrangement of my content, I have thought about the idea of chronologically organising my content. My book would start from the initial ideas and run through until the actual printing; being split into separate parts which would each contain its own chapters that further split up the content into categories. These chapters of my book could be created in two ways, each with different things in mind:
Whilst collecting and creating this list of chapters and categories to be put into my book, I have been thinking about the way in which my book would actually work. With each chapter being put into alphabetical order individually, it would mean that my tabs would be slightly trickier to apply than originally thought. Depending on the amount of chapters, I would have numerous different sets of tabs that each went from A-Z. This could mean that perhaps it would be more effective for each chapter to actually become a different book. However, I really like the idea of all of my information being a single book, in the same way that a dictionary contains all of the information within a single book. I am going to research into the two ideas further, thinking about how I could apply various techniques to my own project, and see which options gives me the best solution.
I have decided that in terms of how my content will be arranged, the best idea is to arrange it in chronological order. Being able to look through the book and easily understand which part of the book refers to which stage of the designing for print process. It is also a slightly more unique take on the brief, a different way of looking at it, which I think will be more effective than organising my book into the 6 categories.
As I now have my concept for my Design For Print book sorted, I need to gather my content so that I can actually produce my book. Thinking about my concept, creating a dictionary to give people the vocabulary to research for themselves, I looked through various books to get an idea of what print is all about and the words that are used to describe it. These are the books that I looked at, as well as the words and terms that I collected from each:
Basics Design 06: Print & Finish -
- Accordion or Concertina fold: Two or more parallel folds that go in opposite directions and open out like an accordion.
- Bellyband: A printed band that wraps around the belly of a publication; typically used on magazines.
- Bible paper: A thin, lightweight, long-life, opaque paper grade typically made from 25% cotton and linen rags or flax with chemical wood pulp, named after its most common usage.
- Binding: Any of several processes for holding together the pages or sections of a publication to form a book, magazine, brochure or some other format using stitches, wire, glue or other media.
- Binding screws: Uses with the Purdue hard cover binding method to secure a front and back cover to the pages.
- Bitmap or Raster: Any graphic image that is composed of picture elements (pixels), commonly used to reproduce detailed tonal images.
- Bouncer: A registration problem that occurs due to the use of the black process colour. It can be resolved by under printing the other process colours.
- Channel: One layer of colour information in an image. A RGB image has three channels, a CMYK image has four and a black-and-white image has just one.
- CMYK: Cyan, magenta, yellow and black, the subtractive primaries and four process colours.
- Colour fall: The pages of a publication, as depicted in the imposition plan. which will receive a special colour or varnish, or are to be printed on a different stock.
- Concertina fold: See accordion fold.
- Deboss: As emboss, but recessed into the substrate.
- Die cut: Special shapes cut in a substrate by a steel die.
- Duotone: A tonal image that is produced using two colours.
- Duplexing: Lamination of two stocks with different properties such as colour.
- Dust jacket: A loose cover to protect the boards of an edition bound book.
- Emboss: A design stamped with or without ink or foil into a substrate giving a raised surface.
- Flock: A speciality stock produced by coating a sheet with size and sprinkling it with a dyed flock powder (made from woollen refuse or vegetable fibre dust), to produce a raised pattern.
- Fluorescent colour: A vibrant special colour that cannot be reproduced by combining the process colours.
- Foil, heat or hot stamp: Foil pressed on to a substrate using heat and pressure. Also known as block print or foil emboss.
- Fore-edge printing: A special printing process for the fore-edge of a publication's pages. Gilding is a form of fore-edge printing.
- French fold: A sheet of paper that is only printed on one side and folded with two right-angle folds to form a four-page, uncut section. The section is sewn through the fold while the top edges remain folded and untrimmed.
- Gatefold: A type of fold in which the left and right edges fold inwards with parallel folds and meet in the middle of the page without overlapping.
- Gradient: A graduation of increasing or decreasing colour(s) applied to an image.
- Greyscale: An image that contains shades of grey as well as black and white.
- Halftone: The simulation of a continuous tone produced by a pattern of dots.
- Imposition: The arrangement of pages in the sequence and position they will appear when printed before being cut, folded and trimmed.
- Ink trapping: Overlapping of coloured text or shapes to account for poor printing registration and to prevent the appearance of white gaps.
- JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group): A file format for storing photographic images. A JPEG file contains 24-bit colour information (i.e. 6.7 million colours), using compression to discard image information. It is suitable for images with complex pixel gradations but not for flat colour.
- Knockout: A gap left in the bottom ink layer so that an overprinted image will appear without colour modification from the ink underneath.
- Lacquer: A coating applied to a printed work to provide a high-gloss finish.
- Laminate: A stock made by bonding two or more layers together. Typically used to provide a thick cover stock comprising a cheap liner with a printable outer. Also see duplexing.
- Levels: The amount of colour present within a channel.
- Metallic ink: A special printing ink that gives a gold, silver, bronze or copper effect.
- Offset lithography: A printing technique in which the ink is transferred from a printing plate to a blanket cylinder and then on to the stock on which it is to be printed. Also called lithography.
- Overprint: One element printed over another within a design. Typically, a darker colour will overprint a lighter colour.
- Perforation: A series of cuts or holes cut impressed in to a substrate with a die to weaken it for tearing.
- Process colours: See CMYK.
- Raster: See Bitmap.
- Reverse out: The removal of part of a flood colour in order to leave white space.
- RGB: Red, green and blue, the additive primary colours.
- Screen printing: A low-volume printing method where ink is passed through a screen, which carries a design, on to a substrate.
- Silk-screen printing: See Screen printing.
- Special colour: A printing ink specially mixed to give a specific colour, including metallic or fluorescent inks.
- Spot colour: See Special colour.
- Spot varnish: A varnish applied to a specific area of a printed piece.
- Stock: The paper to be printed upon.
- Substrate: The material or surface to be printed upon.
- Surprint: Two elements that are printed on top of one another and are tints of the same colour.
- Throw-up: Stock that is folded and bound into a publication in such a way that it can be opened out to a much larger dimension that the publication contains it.
- TIFF (Tagged Image File Format): A file format for storing halftones and photographic images.
- Tint: A colour shade that is predominantly white.
- Tip-in: An insert attached to a publication by gluing along the binding edge.
- Tonal images: Images produced using black and another colour.
- UV Coating: Coating applied to a printed substrate that is bonded and cured with ultraviolet light.
- Varnish: Clear or tinted liquid shellac or plastic coating put on a printed piece to add a glossy, stain or dull finish, applied like a final ink layer after a piece is printed.
- Vellum: A thin sheet of specially prepared calfskin, lambskin, or kidskin leather used as a book-binding material.
- Z-bind: A z-shaped cover that is used to join two separate publications, or two parts of the same publication.
The Visual Dictionary of Pre-Press & Production -
- Absolute Measurements: Measurements of fixed values, such as a millimetre, which is a precisely defined increment of a centimetre. Both points and picas, the basic typographic measurements, are fixed values that are expressed in finite terms.
- Relative Measurements: Values in typography that are defined by a series of relative measurements linked to type size. Examples include character spacing and the em. For example, type set 70pt has a 70 point em. Type set 40pt has a 40pt em.
- Adjustment Layers: A layer used for making changes to a digital image without affecting the original image. An adjustment layer is used to apply effects, filters or undertake image and colour correction while leaving the base image intact. Use of adjustment layers means that the base image is always available for reference, to be compared with the manipulated image. You can also revert to it, should any errors be made.
- Alignment: The position of type within a text block in relation to both vertical and horizontal margins. A designer uses alignment to work on the shape formed by the text block within the overall design. Text can be aligned along the horizontal plane, and it can also be aligned along the vertical plane. The setting of a text block can also combine vertical and horizontal alignment. For example, it can be justified in both dimensions or centred horizontally and bottom aligned.
- Back Edge: The part of a book block that is nearest to the spine. When bound, anything printed near the spine edge may be difficult to see. A designer needs to be aware of this lost space and compensate for it by leaving an appropriate back margin. The width of the back margin will depend on the binding type: some binding methods allow a book to open, while others do not.
- Bad Break: The hyphenation of words at the ends of the lines of a justified text block in such a way as to produce a poor visual result. The process of justifying text often breaks and hyphenates words so that the text adequately fills the line. When undertaken with little control, this can result in several consecutive hyphenated lines, which is visually poor from a design point of view, and can result in unsightly widows and orphans. Designers can exercise a great deal of control over a text block to correct bad breaks, which includes choosing where to break a word and adjusting the hyphenation settings to prevent consecutive line breaks. Kerning is used to adjust the spacing between words; letter spacing is used to adjust the spacing between letters.
- Baseline Grid: The basic structure that is used to guide the placement of type and graphic elements within a design. The baseline grid, when combined with text columns, provides a clear and definite method of handling type placement.
- Binding: A print finishing process through which the pages of a publication are gathered and securely held together. There are many different types of binding, which have different durability, aesthetic, cost and functional characteristics. One key characteristic of binding methods is whether or not they allow pages to lie open flat. Where they do not, a designer should leave more space at the back edge or else it may be difficult to see the information printed. 1. Perfect binding - The backs of sections are removed and held together with a flexible adhesive, also used to attach a paper cover to the spine. The fore-edge is trimmed flat. Perfect binding is commonly used for paperback books. 2. Case binding - A common hard cover bookbinding method, also known as case binding. Signatures are sewn together, the spine is flattened, endsheets are added and headbands and tailbands are attached to the spine. 3. Spiral binding - A spiral of metal or plastic wire that winds through punched holes in the stock and allows the publication to open flat. 4. Wiro binding - A spine of metal (wiro) rings, which binds a document and allows it to open flat. 5. Comb binding - A spine of plastic (comb) rings, which binds a document and allows it to open flat. 6. Open binding - A book bound without a cover to leave an exposed spine. 7. Canadian - A wiro-bound publication with a wraparound cover and an enclosed spine. 8. Saddle stitch - Signatures are nested and bound with wire stitches applied through the spine along the centrefold. 9. Clips and bolts - A fastening device that holds loose pages together. This usually requires a punched or drilled hold for the bolt or clip to pass through.
- Bleed: Printed areas that extend beyond the 'trim', or the final finished size of the page. Without including a bleed, the printer will find it impossible to finish a job accurately and white edges will show where the pages are cut. Usually bleeds are set at 3mm, although more will be needed for some binding methods.
- Bulk: The thickness of a sheet of paper. Generally speaking, paper with higher basis weight, as measured in GSM, has greater bulk, but there are exceptions. Some stocks are made to have greater bulk but without the weight gain. Stock with greater bulk tends to feel more substantial between the fingers that typical printing paper. Printers can make a bulking dummy using unprinted sheets of stock so that a designer can see and feel what the weight of a publication will be like.
- Cockling: A distortion of paper stock that appears as a ripple or wave, caused by changes in humidity during the transportation and storage and/or the introduction of moisture into the stock. Named after the wave form of a cockle shell, cockling causes print problems on the press and makes it difficult to print in registration. Paper stock is typically stored for a least a couple of days at the print shop prior to use so that it can acclimatise to the ambient humidity.
- Column: A vertical structure that contains and organises body text on a page. A page may have one or several text columns and they can be of any width; it depends on the number of text elements to be presented and the number of characters they contain. For example, a magazine spread may contain an extended article that is either one continuous body of text or several short and unrelated items. The use of columns automatically creates a gutter or a space between them. A designer can control the gutter size, making it wider or thinner, enabling the text to be read easily. If the gutter between columns it too tight, the words from one column appear to run into the next one. As a consequence, a reader may mistakenly read across adjacent columns as it is not obvious where a line ends. In addition, it will make it more difficult for the eye to locate the start of each line on the second and subsequent columns. If the gutter is too wide, the text in the columns appears to be unrelated and will seem like unlinked text blocks. This makes it more difficult for the eye to jump from one column to the next.
- Composite: An element made up from distant components. In graphic design, the final image is often a composite of many components such as text, photos and illustrations. The printing process can add further components such as stock, varnish, emboss and foil block.
- Compression: One of various processes that reduces the information contained within a digital file and therefore reduces it in size. Compression can be lossy or lossless. Lossy compression methods, such as JPEG, discard information, which can result in image degradation via the appearance of compression artefacts or jaggies. Lossy methods are typically used for photographic images where loss of fidelity is acceptable. Lossless compression produces no visible deterioration in image quality and results in a clear image. These methods include TIFF, BMP and GIF.
- Computer to Plate (CTP): Imaging technology used in printing whereby a design is output directly on to a printing plate. Traditional printing methods see a design output on to film, which is then used to make a printing plate. Computer-to-plate technology is a quicker and cheaper method for making printing plates, and a sharper and more detailed image is transferred, with reduced risk of registration problems.
- Continuous Tone: An image where the colour at any given point is produced as a single tone, such as for black-and-white and colour photographs. The four-colour offset lithography printing process uses screens to convert a continuous tone image into a series of halftone dots. As such, the resulting reproduced image no longer has continuous tone.
- Creep: The occurrence of inner folded pages of a publication (or printed section) extending further that the outer folded pages. It is usually caused by the bulk of the paper or the extent of the publication. Creep may not be a problem in saddle-stitched publications that are untrimmed, but information near the trim edge in perfect-bound publication may be lost, so design elements need to be positioned away from the fore-edge.
- Digital printing: The reproduction of digital material on a physical surface without the use of printing plates. Digital printing is a highly flexible method that differs from traditional printing techniques, such as lithography, flexography, gravure and letterpress, in that every print can be altered and made different. As such, digital printing is appropriate for short print runs and the customisation of content or variable data printing (VDP). Compared with traditional methods, there is less chemical usage and paper waste, the ink is not absorbed by the substrate and setup times are quicker. A range of different substrates are available for use with digital printers, including uncoated and recycled stocks.
- Dot Gain/Dot Size: A printing problem that sees the spreading and enlarging of ink dots on the stock during printing. Dot gain may be a particular problem with stocks that are more absorbent because the ink spreads out as it soaks into the paper. Dot gain is checked during the printing process by reviewing the star target on the striker bar printed at the edge of the sheet. Dot size is determined by the halftone screens that are used to make the colour separations for a print job using the process colours.
- DPI/PPI/LPI/SPI: DPI (dots per inch) refers to the number of dots produced by a printer. For example, in lithography, 300dpi is standard. When a printer requests an image at a certain dpi, they actually mean ppi. PPI (pixels per inch) is a reference to the number of pixels (displayed vertically and horizontally) in each square inch of a digital image. This reflects how much information an image contains. For example, a 300ppi image contain nine times more information than a 100ppi image. LPI (lines per inch) is a measure of detail in a printed halftone image. Put simply, the more lines per inch, the tighter the configuration of dots and the smoother the image. On porous stocks such as newsprint, for example, a low lpi (around 85lpi) is used to prevent colour bleeding. SPI (samples per inch) is a measure of resolution for a scanner or camera.
- Dummy: Prototype of a publication in the chosen stock. A dummy enables the designer to get a feel for the publication: its weight, its bulk, the size of its spine and how the stock creeps when bound in signatures.
- Endorse Fold: An additional fold made to a printed piece after the finishing processes- including folding - have been completed. An endorse fold is often added for distribution reasons; for example, an A4 newsletter may be endorse folded to A5 to reduce the materials for mailing.
- Fill In: A printing error that occurs when dot gain reduces the counters of letters, making them more difficult to read. Fill in is more likely to occur when rougher, more absorbent stocks are used and where a typeface has smaller counters.
- Finishing: A wide range of processes that provide the finishing touches to a job once the substrate has been printed. Finishing processes include die cutting, binding, special print techniques, laminating, folding, foil blocking, varnishing and screen printing, all of which can transform an ordinary-looking piece into something much more interesting and dynamic. Finishing processes can add decorative elements to a printed piece, such as the shimmer of a foil block or the texture of an emboss. Finishing techniques also add functionality to a design and can even be a constituent part of a publications format; for example, a matte laminate to protect a substrate, making it last longer. Although the application of print finishing techniques signals the end of the production process, these techniques should not be considered as afterthoughts but as an integral part of a design that needs to be considered at the planning stage.
- Flatplan: A method of visually organising the order of a publication. A flatplan allows a designer to determine how the editorial and advertising content of a publication fits in the space available and to establish a certain pace in a publication. Colour coding may be used to identify different types of content.
- Fluorescent: A colour so brilliant that it apparently gives off light. The use of fluorescent inks will produce bright colours on a design, particularly on coloured stocks. Fluorescent inks may even be added to the CMYK process colours to intensify them. On press fluorescent inks do not behave like regular colours; higher quantities are usually needed to achieve the intensity required, and they are harder to match to the colours in swatch books.
- Folio: A page number. Folios are traditionally placed on the outer edge of the bottom margin where they are easy to find to aid navigation when thumbing through a book. However, they can be centred or located near the inside margin, at the top or foot of the page; they may even be centred in the outside margin. Having folios centred under the text block adds harmony; positioning them to the out margin adds dynamism to a layout as they are more noticeable and act as visual weights. The term folio is also used to refer to a large format book, where the inner sheets are only folded once before binding. It can also mean a page or leaf of a book.
- Greeking and Dummy Text: Nonsensical text used as a placeholder in a design before real copy is inserted. Greeking text can be latin, jumbled english, or even klingon. Care should be taken though, as some of these can be distracting and the point of greeking is that it shouldn't be read.
- GSM: The common metric measurement for paper weight. GSM, or grams per square metre, is a measurement based on the weight of the standard ISO A0 paper size, which has an area of 1 square metre. The relationship represented by the ISO paper size system means that it is simple to calculate the weight of a printed piece. For example, a standard A4 80 GSM sheet paper weighs 5 grams. It should be noted that an increase in paper weight typically means thicker paper and greater opacity.
- Gutter: The space that comprises the central alleyway between two pages at the spine. Gutter is also used to refer to the space between text columns, which provides a visual break. In many designs, gutters are often page areas of dead space.
- Halftone: The series of dots produced during the screening processes to prepare a continuous tone image, such as a photograph, for printing. The four-colour printing process creates halftone separations for each of the CMYK process colours. During printing, the different colour halftone dots combine to produce continuous tone colour images. Halftone 'dots' can be lines, dots, ellipses or squares and a designer can control and change their screen angles, frequencies and size. Different sizes create tonal variation.
- Hexachrome: A range of six process colours used for printing. The hexachrome printing system is an improvement of the four-colour printing process and works in the same way, but with the addition of green and orange to improve the gamut of colours. A gamut is every colour combination that it is possible to produce with a given set of colourants on a particular device or system. Colour printing systems cannot reproduce the full spectral colour gamut that the human eye can see, but hexachrome can produce 90% of the Pantone PMS colours. The CMYK gamut produces fewer than 70%.
- Hologram: A pattern produced on a photosensitive medium, which has been exposed by holography and then photographically developed. Holography records the light scattered from an object so that the recorded image changes as the viewing position changes, making the hologram appear three-dimensional. Holograms are used for security tags on bank notes and credit cards as the replication process requires relatively expensive and specialised equipment.
- Hue: The colour reflected or transmitted from an object. Hue refers to the unique characteristic of a colour that helps us visually distinguish one colour from another. A hue is formed by different wavelengths of visible light and expressed as a value between 0 and 360 on the colour wheel. Changing hue values will dramatically alter the colour of an image.
- Hyphenation/Justification: The use of a hyphen to divide a word at the end of a text line. When using justified text, hyphenation is often necessary to produce a visually attractive text block. Hyphenation is controllable both in terms of where words are broken and the number of successive lines that can be hyphenated. Typographically, more than two successive lines of text that end in hyphens is undesirable. A hypho is a hyphenated widow that leaves half a word on a line, as shown at the end of the previous paragraph. Hyphos can be removed by reducing letter or word spacing, or by rewriting. Without hyphenation, a text block will become increasingly loose and baggy due to excess word spacing. This is unsightly and produces an uneven looking result for the text blocks.
- Image Correction Marks: A system of codes used to indicate changes to the reproduction of photographs and other images. Image correction marks are annotated during proofing, in a process known as marking up, to communicate corrections and the specific areas to which they should be applied.
- Insert: A loose leaf item or card placed within a publication but not bound into it. Inserts include mailers and advertisements, which are placed within the pages of magazines, as well as addenda, which may be added to a book or a magazine. Addenda include paper inserts that highlight errors or other inconsistencies in the text.
- Kerning: Removing space between letters to improve the visual look of a block of type. Kern originally referred to the part of a type character that extended outside its bounding block or printing block. As kernings is increased, the quantity of white space between characters is reduced. Kerning is often used with larger type sizes as these may appear loose when set naturally. This looseness can be reined in using kerning. Some letter combinations can cause typographical problems, particularly when set at large point sizes. The use of kerning and letter spacing to add and subtract produces a more even and attractive result.
- Laminating: A process of joining two or more different layers of material together. Laminated materials are used in print production so that a job benefits from the different qualities of the individual laminates. This may be as simple as having two pieces of the same stock with different colours. Lamination also refers to heat sealing a sheet of stock between layers of plastic with pressure and an adhesive. Lamination helps protect a printed piece by acting as a barrier. This can prevent business cards or menus from becoming dog-eared or it can stop the foil of a foil block from wearing away.
- Layers: Layers, a powerful graphic design tool, are the single levels or skins of a digital image which can be worked on independently. Adjustments layers allow graphic changes to be made while the original image is preserved.
- Leading: A hot-metal printing term that originates from the strips of lead that were inserted between text measures in order to space them accurately and evenly. Leading is specified in points and refers nowadays to the space between the lines of text in a text block so that the information is easy to read. To achieve a balanced and well-spaced text block, leading usually has a larger point size than the text; for example, a 10pt typeface might be set with 12pt leading. Different fonts, however, occupy differing amounts of the em square. This can make equally-set fonts, of the same size and same leading, appear different. Some fonts occupy more of the vertical space of the em square, while others with a small x-height appear much lighter. Computer technology makes it possible to set text with negative leading so that the lines of text crash into one another and even overlap. Text set with negative leading can look dramatic although it may be difficult to read.
- Letterpress: A relief printing method that creates a tactile depth and impression on a printed piece. Letters are set in a chase, or form, which is bonded to a printing bed. The letters are then inked and pressed onto the stock. The amount of pressure applied can be altered to create a lighter or deeper impression. Letterpress was the forerunner for modern printing and many terms associated with it are still in use today. A defect of letterpress is also part of its quality. Each 'pull' or print will be slightly different from the previous one as the ink and pressure levels change. Many fonts available in letterpress will not be available in digital form, which opens up creative choices to the modern designers.
- Lino Cut Printing: A relief printing method that involves cutting an image into a substrate such as lino, which is then inked and pressed against another substrate to transfer the image. A line cut typically produces a monotone image that has a distinctive look of coarse cut lines and hatching.
- Loose Leaf: A sheet of paper from a notebook that is typically perfect bound using adhesive, with a hard board at the back and a lightweight stock on the front; this allows the sheets to be easily removed loose leaf pages are often perforated so that they can be stored in binders or lever-arch files. Loose leaf paper often has ruled blue lines and a pink margin.
- Loupe: A magnifying device used to check the quality and detail of images in photographic contact sheets and transparencies, as well as the print qualities of proofs. A loupe typically has 8x magnification and is held to the eye, directly over the image being reviewed.
- Make Ready: Adjusting the ink film thickness to bring the colour intensity up to the correct level. Make readies are compared against a match proof to gauge when the colour level is correct. Once the print run proper commences, a note is placed among the output copies to separate the make readies from the final prints.
- Moire: Interference patterns caused by the printing of colour halftone dots when the screen angles have not been properly set.
- Mono Printing: The printing of a design in a single colour. Mono printing is typically chosen because of budgetary constraints but, while it has just one colour pass, it can still be used creatively. Methods include the use of colour stock and tints to create colour variations. Any printing ink can be printed in tints or increments of 10% to give a stronger or weaker colours presence. The strength of a tint can make a dramatic statement in an image. A tint can be used to create a surprint, where two elements that print on top of one another are tints of the same colour. Tints below 10% may not print accurately or be very visible. To see how tints will appear on the final job, a tin bar can be printed in the trim edge of the wet proof.
- Multi-Ink: An ink formed of two or more process or hexachrome colours. The process colours are mixed in various proportions to create the new colour. Multi-ink colours can be named and saved so that they can be used consistently across a job. Avoid combining process inks that have total values of more than 260: it produce muddy colours.
- NCR (No Carbon Required): A multiple-part, stain-free copy paper. NCR uses a dye released by contact pressure, such as writing or striking typewriter keys, to leave a permanent mark. NCR is used in various stationery applications such as order pads and receipt pads.
- Offset Lithography: A printing process that involves transferring (offsetting) an inked image from a planographic or flat printing plate on to a rubber blanket roller, which is then pressed against the substrate. Lithography produces good photographic reproduction and fine line work on a variety of stocks. The printing plates are easy to prepare and high speeds are achievable, which help make it a low-cost printing method. Offset lithography is available in sheet-fed printing presses and continuous web presses. Sheet-fed presses are used for lower production runs such as flyers, brochures and magazines, while web printing is used for high-volume print jobs such as newspapers, magazines and reports. The high set-up cost for offset lithography mean that it may not be the most economic choice for small print runs.
- Orphans and Widows: Typographical errors that detract from the visual appearance of a block of text. Orphans refers to the final one or two lines of a paragraph, which are separated from the rest of the paragraph at the point where it breaks to form a new column. Orphans should be avoided at all costs. Generally, the removal of orphans requires text to be pulled back to previous lines or pushed forward to fill the line out, although more text is often needed to alleviate the problem. Widows refers to the lone word at the end of a paragraph or text column. Generally, range-right text creates fewer widows, but to remove them requires text to be pulled back to previous lines or pushed forward to fill the line out.
- Overprinting: The printing of one ink over another to create different colours. Overprinting can be used for creative effects and to extend colour options when printing with a limited range, such as two colours. According to colour theory, overprinting pairs of the three subtractive primary CMY process colours produces additive primary colours. To overprint effectively, a designer needs to bear in mind the order in which the process colours print. If printing in the order cyan, magenta, yellow and black, the yellow cannot overprint cyan for example. Blacks with different tones and intensities can also be achieved with overprinting.
- Pagination: The total number of pages in a printed document. Pagination is expressed as a number followed by the abbreviation pp, which means printed pages. A printed page is classes as each side of a page. For example a single leaf, folded in two, would create four printed pages.
- Pantone: An innovative colour matching system, developed in 1963 for identifying, matching and communicating colours. A standardised swatch book of colour chips, produced in fan format, helped solve the problems associated with producing accurate colour matches in graphic arts. Pantone Inc. produces several colour swatch books that correspond to different collections of Pantone colour. The Pantone system allocates a letter and a number to each colour: for example, m for matte and c for coated; 485 represents red. Some colours are also named, such as reflex blue.
- Passepartout: A border used to frame an image or other element. A passepartout adds a subtle decorative touch; it clearly defines the corners thanks to its contrasting colour, typically the white of the stock. A passepartout also provides a means of standardising the presentation of different subject matter.
- Perfect Binding: A binding method commonly used for paperback books. Perfect binding sees the signatures help together with a flexible adhesive to create spine. This adhesive is also used to attach a paper cover to the spine. The fore-edge is trimmed flat. Perfect binding is an economic binding method that produces a uniform oblong shape. However, it does not allow the pages to lie flat, which may make content printed close to the binding edge difficult to read. Designers typically leave a wider margin at the binding edge to compensate for this.
- Pixel: All digital images are essentially a series of recorded squares of information. Each square is a pixel. When enough pixels are placed together they form a seamless image. In simple terms, the more pixels an image contains the higher its resolution; however, there is a note of caution here. A high pixel count doesn't necessarily mean a good image. A photograph, for example, may have a high pixel count but if the light settings are incorrect, if there is camera shake or it is out of focus, the image will be poor. Pixelation occurs when an image doesn't contain enough information, and simply resampling the image so that it contains more pixels won't help. Certain interpolation software programs try to resolve this by predicting the colours of the new pixels following enlargement. However, there is no substitute for a good-quality original image.
- Printing: A process that applies ink or varnish from a printing plate or screen, which contains an image, on to a substrate. There are four main processes used in the commercial printing industry: offset lithography, gravure, letterpress and screen printing, all of which differ in cost, reproduction quality and production rate or volume. Modern printing technology also includes inkjet printing, a process that involves spraying ink directly on to a substrate. Each printing process has particular strengths and weaknesses that make them appropriate for particular print jobs. Lithography printing produces good photographic reproduction and fine line-work on a variety of stocks. The printing plates are easy to prepare and high speeds are achievable, which helps make it a low-cost printing method. Offset lithography is available in sheet-fed printing presses and continuous web presses Sheet-fed presses are used for lower production runs such as flyers, brochures and magazines, while web printing us used for high-volume print jobs such as newspapers, magazines and reports. Letterpress was the first commercial printing method and the source of many printing terms. The raised surface that is inked for printing may be made from single type blocks, cast lines or engraved plates. Relief printing can be identified by the sharp and precise edges to letters, with heavier ink borders. Rotogravure and Flexography are more common commercial relief print processes. They are high speed, give the highest production volume and use the widest printing presses, so they are suitable for very large print runs. Flexography was developed for printing packaged materials. Screen printing is a relatively low-volume, slow printing method that allows images to be applied to a wide range of substrates, including cloth, ceramics and metals, which are beyond the scope of other printing methods.
- Proofs: Pages printed at different stages of production to ensure accurate reproduction of a design, such as verifying text, layout and colour. Soft or screen proof - A proof used for layout and colour information control and to check the screen structures of a print. Laser proof - A black-and-white computer print. Pre-press proof - An analogue or digital proof that gives an approximation of what the finished piece will look like. Includes bluelines, colour overlay and laminate proofs. Blueline, Dylux or Salt proof - A contact print produced from film. Scatter proof - A proof of an individual photo or group of photos not included as part of the page layout. Composite integral colour proof - High-quality proofs produced using four sheets (one for each colour) laminated together in register. Press or machine proof - A proof produced using the actual plates, inks and paper, also know as a wet proof. Contract proof - A final colour proof used to form a contract between the printer and client.
- Registration: The exact alignment of two or more printed colour passes on the same stock. A printer uses the circular dots or registration marks on the striker band to check registration and decided what adjustments are needed. One-colour printing does not present colour registration problems are there is nothing for a colour pass to register with. Misregistration is a visual fault that can make a four-colour image look distorted or blurred. It can also mean that text is not where it is supposed to be, or that small type sizes and fine lines cannot be seen. Misregistration can wreak havoc when text is reversed out of a single colour or where colours need to overprint.
- Saddle Stitch: A fast and economic binding method. The pages are nested and bound with wire stitches applied through the spine along the centrefold, which also allows a variety of different covers to be included. Saddle stitching is not a strong or durable binding as the pages of the signature can work loose from the stitches. Also, as the pages are nested, the bigger the signature becomes and the more likely it is to creep.
- Screen angles: The inclination or angle of the rows of halftone dots that are printed to form colour images in the four-colour printing process. The rows of halftone dots for each colour when printed and causing unwanted moire patterns. Setting the halftone dots at different screen angles ensures that they give a better coverage of the printed surface.
- Shiners and Bouncers: A method of printing a darker, richer black by underprinting with the subtractive primaries. Printing a rich black prevents bounce, a registration problem that can occur when non-colour areas print adjacent to heavy colour areas. Printing a 50% shiner of cyan, magenta and yellow produces a grey colour that covers registration errors with the black due to the shared colours. Using a shiner, flat areas of black can appear warmer and cooler.
- Showthrough: An image or design that can be seen through the reverse of the substrate upon which it has been printed. It typically occurs when thin, translucent stocks are used. Showthrough is generally considered an error although it can be used to good creative effect.
- Stock: Paper used for printing. Different stocks have different properties that can affect the visual outcome of a printed piece, including varying lustre, absorbency and stiffness. Stock decisions increasingly take into account environmental issues such as the amount of recycled content; whether the paper was produced from sustainable forests and the practices adopted for the handling and disposal of the paper-making chemicals. Acid Free - Paper that has a neutral pH of 7, or slightly higher, which is used for fine art and limited edition printing, for permanent records and in cases where contact with paper acidity could harm the documents. Antique - A lightweight, sometimes bulky paper that is rough to the touch. Antique paper has a neutral feel and random texture. Chromo - A waterproof coated stock often used for covers and labels. Newsprint - A cheap stock used for high-volume printing; its absorbency gives mediocre image reproduction. Woodfree - Paper made without mechanical wood pulp. Laid - Writing paper that has a watermark of fine lines running across the grain. Uncoated - The most popular stock for commercial printing and office use. Cast coated - Coated stock with a high-gloss finish for high-quality colour printing. Art - High-brightness stock with a good printing surface used for colour printing and magazines. Bible - Thin, white, opaque and absorbent. Used for printing bibles. Bond - Paper with good strength, stiffness and aesthetic properties. These papers were originally used for printing bonds and share certificates. Cotton - Paper made from cotton fibres. It has superior strength and durability compared to wood pulp paper; it absorbs ink well and produces a better printout than laser paper. Cotton paper is typically graded as 25%, 50% or 100% cotton.
- Surprint: A technique of printing from a single colour. A surprint uses the tint values of one colour to give the impression of two or more colours being used. Surprints are often combined with reverse outs, which introduce the stock colour; again this creates the illusion that more colour are being used. Surprints are useful when you are restricted with colours but want to add a sense of texture or heirachy.
- Thumbnail: Small versions of a design, whether it be a book, exhibition or website. They are useful for enabling designers and clients to see the flow of a job, and also the overall impression of a design, but without the detail. As an exercise, printing thumbnails enables you to ensure consistency of some items and variation of others. This is helpful when it is difficult to appreciate how a run of pages will appear. Thumbnails are also useful when checking the pagination or colour fall of a print job.
- Trapping: A technique that aids the registration of colour passes in a printing job by creating slight areas of overlap where two colours meet. Ink trapping helps avoid the presence of unsightly white spaces caused by misregistration, where inks that print as solid colours about each other. There are two main ink trapping options: spread and choke. Most ink traps use spreading, whereby one object is made larger to spread into another. Standard practice is to spread a lighter object into a darker one. Choke reduces the size of the aperture in which an object will print, thereby 'choking' the space. Standard practice is to choke dark objects that sit inside a lighter one. Trapping, which includes techniques like overprinting, is established at the design stage, so that the designer can control how different objects will print.
- Trim Marks: The guide marks printed on to stock, as part of a print job, which indicate where cuts or trims are to be made. There are generally two sets of marks: the inner set are the bleed crop marks; the outer set are the trim marks. There are also registration marks and a colour density bar. Designs can be printed over and beyond the trim marks in order to prevent the appearance of white lines once the print job has been trimmed.
- Unbound: A print job that has no binding. Unbound print jobs include single flyers or pamphlets and more elaborate, folded pieces. Folding enables the printed sheet to be turned into a signature containing various pages or panels.
- Variable Data Printing: A printing process that involves parts of the design being altered with each impression. Variable data printing typically includes printing different names, addresses or serial numbers on documents such as invites, raffle tickets or direct mail.
I have then gone through all of these words and picked out the ones that are more related to print, as opposed to graphic design in general. (These have been highlighted) This allows me to only include the words and terms that are used when talking about print, instead of just using terms that are more widely associated with graphic design as a whole. I would also be including the obvious things within my book such as:
- Different types of stock and various substrates
- A wide array of processes, such as screen printing and embossing
- Numerous types of printing, such as lithography and risograph
- Different formats, including paper sizes
- Binding, as many different examples as possible
I then started thinking about the other terms that I had decided not to use, and thought that although they don't directly relate to print these terms could still be useful in terms of the actual designing for print.
I then continued looking at existing publications, thinking about the type of book that I am aiming to achieve. I am creating a dictionary, which normally are extremely text heavy that rarely include any images or colour. They are arranged in alphabetical order with tabs on the edge of the page in order to make it as easy as possible to use. However, most books involve chapters in order to chronologically arrange the books content, this being something that could help the organisation of my own content. If I was to include the use of chapters, I could then include other terms that aren't exclusively related to print but do actually help inform the actual designing of print. I could combine these two methods of arranging my content in order to include the most content possible whilst also making it as easy as possible to use; chapters to arrange content in chronological order, each chapters content then being in alphabetical order with tabs to improve functionality.
When thinking about this, considering the arrangement of my content, I have thought about the idea of chronologically organising my content. My book would start from the initial ideas and run through until the actual printing; being split into separate parts which would each contain its own chapters that further split up the content into categories. These chapters of my book could be created in two ways, each with different things in mind:
- I could break down the process of 'designing for print', and arrange the stages in chronological order from start to finish.
- I could also break my book into chapters referring to the 6 categories we spoke about at the start of the brief: Format, Colour, Production, Process, Finishing, Stock.
Both of these would make sense and work very well and cover all of design for print. I then sat down and thought about the process of designing for print, and have tried splitting the process into stages, like so (not in order):
- Initial ideas
- Thumbnails
- Research
- Colour
- Text
- Format
- Scale
- Stock
- Process
- Proofs
- Binding
- Finishing
- Printing
Whilst collecting and creating this list of chapters and categories to be put into my book, I have been thinking about the way in which my book would actually work. With each chapter being put into alphabetical order individually, it would mean that my tabs would be slightly trickier to apply than originally thought. Depending on the amount of chapters, I would have numerous different sets of tabs that each went from A-Z. This could mean that perhaps it would be more effective for each chapter to actually become a different book. However, I really like the idea of all of my information being a single book, in the same way that a dictionary contains all of the information within a single book. I am going to research into the two ideas further, thinking about how I could apply various techniques to my own project, and see which options gives me the best solution.
I have decided that in terms of how my content will be arranged, the best idea is to arrange it in chronological order. Being able to look through the book and easily understand which part of the book refers to which stage of the designing for print process. It is also a slightly more unique take on the brief, a different way of looking at it, which I think will be more effective than organising my book into the 6 categories.
OUGD 504 - Studio Brief 1
As I am now creating more of a dictionary, or encyclopedia, I decided to see if there was anything else out there that I could find. However, I couldn't find anything that I felt was appropriate. All dictionaries and encyclopedia's are very basic and standard, containing only lots and lots of text. I like the idea of my book having a lot of content, but want to ensure that it is very specific and easy to use, containing only the information that I feel is really relevant.
OUGD 504 - Studio Brief 1
When given this brief, I instantly wanted to see what the previous year had produced, as this was the benchmark for us. I came across this print pack, designed by Sam Lane, which I thought was a very nice example.
Within the books, how covers a very broad range of subjects and topics that all relate to print. I have quickly gone through these books and become aware of many more things that I could include within my own project. The use of different colours, in conjunction with the box, has allowed Sam to create a set of books that work alone whilst also working very well as an entire set.
Pinterest:
Like how Sam created his set of books, this project has created a range of books that all appear completely different, but due to the box, work very well as an overall set. This is something that I could consider within my own project, perhaps thinking about some way to package my books together.
I came across the above two images when looking at publications online, and these became my main inspirations for my books design. I really like the way in which boxes have been used to highlight the key points, with the text being readable and clear.
The book above was also an inspiration when it came to the actual design of my book. I was trying to get my head around how I was going to include tabs within my book. Although I ended up not using them, from looking at this book I decided that by creating a shorter cover I could have information along the edge of the page that could always be visible.
I like the use of text within these three books, and think that they are all really well balanced. By putting text around the edge of the page, it draws in your eye to the centre of the pages. This is something that I will play with within my own designs, trying to ensure that my design is balanced yet creative.
OUGD 504 - Studio Brief 1
'Screen printing is arguably the most versatile of all printing processes. It can be used to print on a wide variety of substrates, including paper, paperboard, plastics, glass, metals, fabrics, and many other materials. including paper, plastics, glass, metals, nylon and cotton.' It is used in order to produce an array of various forms of design, and gives a much more personal touch to any piece.
'The equivalent of the printing plate for the screen printer is the screen - a wooden or aluminium frame with a fine nylon mesh stretched over it. The mesh is coated with a light sensitive emulsion or film, which - when dry - will block the holes in the mesh. The image that needs to be printed is output to film either by camera or image-setter. This film positive and the mesh on the screen are sandwiched together and exposed to ultra-violet light in a device called a print-down frame. The screen is then washed with a jet of water which washes away all the light sensitive emulsion that has not been hardened by the ultra-violet light. This leaves you with an open stencil which corresponds exactly to the image that was supplied on the film. Now the screen is fitted on the press and is hinged so it can be raised and lowered. The substrate to be printed is placed position under the screen and ink is placed on the top side of the screen, the frame acting as a barrier to contain the ink. A rubber blade gripped in a wooden or metal handle called a squeegee, not unlike a wind-screen wiper, is pulled across the top of the screen; it pushes the ink through the mesh onto the surface of the substrate you are printing. To repeat the process the squeegee floods the screen again with a return stroke before printing the next impression.'
'The equivalent of the printing plate for the screen printer is the screen - a wooden or aluminium frame with a fine nylon mesh stretched over it. The mesh is coated with a light sensitive emulsion or film, which - when dry - will block the holes in the mesh. The image that needs to be printed is output to film either by camera or image-setter. This film positive and the mesh on the screen are sandwiched together and exposed to ultra-violet light in a device called a print-down frame. The screen is then washed with a jet of water which washes away all the light sensitive emulsion that has not been hardened by the ultra-violet light. This leaves you with an open stencil which corresponds exactly to the image that was supplied on the film. Now the screen is fitted on the press and is hinged so it can be raised and lowered. The substrate to be printed is placed position under the screen and ink is placed on the top side of the screen, the frame acting as a barrier to contain the ink. A rubber blade gripped in a wooden or metal handle called a squeegee, not unlike a wind-screen wiper, is pulled across the top of the screen; it pushes the ink through the mesh onto the surface of the substrate you are printing. To repeat the process the squeegee floods the screen again with a return stroke before printing the next impression.'
- www.printmaker.co.uk
It is a very simple and popular process that can be applied to a very wide variety of design outcomes. It adds different textures and aesthetic qualities that, although many people try, cannot be fully achieved with digital print. Screen printing is a technique that is only really used for short-run print jobs, as it is quite a time consuming and at times a laborious process, only really suited to producing a limited amount of prints. Although you can only really apply one colour at a time, you can work with multiple layers in order to create an image made up from as many different colours as you want, including full colour photographs. In order to do this, you need to consider many factors during the design stages; things such as printers marks, halftone and channels.
Foiling is a process that involves the use of a thin sheet of metal that is applied to a substrate by heat. Glue is applied to the desired area and then the foil is placed on top of this area. Once the heat is applied, the glue melts slightly and binds the foil to the substrate; once peeled away only the area that had glue will be covered in the foil. The use of foil within design can really add a touch of elegance and class to a design, making it stand out from everything else.
Flocking is applied in the same way as foil is, through the application of heat. It leaves a textured feel, almost fluffy, that is slightly raised from the rest of the stock. This can often give a very natural and organic feel, but isn't a very common material within graphic design.
Spot varnish is a type of lacquer that is applied to a piece as a finishing touch, leaving the surface glossy and shiny. This is often used to make certain parts of the design stand out, without using different colours or stocks. To me, this seems like quite a commercial process that is often seen on magazines and books, not something that is really used by the average graphic designer.
Embossing, as well as debossing, is a process that involves pressure forcing the stock to become indented with a certain design. This is often done with a stamp, made from metal or wood, that is placed along with the substrate, under some sort of clamp that applies quite a bit of pressure. It allows you to make a mark onto the stock without actually printing anything, something that is often used very creatively. I think that embossing is quite a common process, but used correctly can really bring strong results.
Laser cutting, which can be used to cut designs that will later be embossed, is a simple process that is done mainly by machine. Once the design is sorted and ready to go, it is put into a software that is hooked up to the laser cutter. This is a big machine that has a laser inside of it which moves around, cutting whatever design you want. It can be used to cut very small details as well as cutting large shapes, perhaps numerous sheets at a time. Done correctly, this can make a design look much more professional and clean, as opposed to cutting it by hand which could lead to rough edges and mistakes.
OUGD 504 - Studio Brief 1
After having a discussion with Lorraine about my interest in the use of fluorescent inks, she informed me about 3rd years that have used it previously. From this, we then had brief conversations with them about the medium and the various constraints that come with it. This is what we discussed:
- When possible, try using a glossier stock. If the stock is too porous it will simply absorb the fluorescent ink and won't work.
- As there are different forms that you can buy the ink in, powder or liquid form, the powder is possibly not as good as the liquid. The woman in the print room has had some experience in working with this medium and is possibly good to talk to about how well it works.
- When it comes to photographing our work, especially when it comes to photographing the fluorescent ink in action, we are definitely much better using a tripod and longer exposure time. This is because when working in a dark room, the lighting will be really bad for a camera and will need longer be able to capture a decent image.
- It is important to first screen print a base coat of white acrylic underneath wherever the fluorescent ink will be printed. This enables the fluorescent ink to sit on top of the acrylic and shall work much better; preventing it from soaking into the substrate and therefore not working at all. Obviously when using this method, ensure that the registration lines up perfectly.
This discussion has been very worthwhile and when it comes to actually experimenting with the medium, this will be very helpful to refer to.
Despite having this conversation, I actually never got around to using the fluorescent ink within this project. However, this information will definitely come in handy later on in the year if I ever come to use this substance.
Despite having this conversation, I actually never got around to using the fluorescent ink within this project. However, this information will definitely come in handy later on in the year if I ever come to use this substance.
OUGD 501 - The Gaze and The Media
Within this session, we are going to recap the main points from the recent lecture, which were:
In this image, it is made to seem as though it is ok to look at her because she is in fact looking at herself. This is where the name 'vanity' came from, and by naming it this it shows a clear attempt on the artists behalf to shift the blame onto the woman herself. Being a painting from 1485, it is a very clear representation of the patriarchal society that they then lived in. Most artists were men, and most of the consumers of art were men, yet most of these paintings featured naked women. This allowed men to hang these images on their wall and get a constant reassurance and sense of security within his own masculinity and power. It enabled the men to physically own a woman without being challenged, fulfilling their voyeuristic desires. The use of the mirror within the painting allows the woman to check that you're still looking at her; this being a common device used within many paintings from this era.
In the lecture, we also looked at these two images and compared them. We went through everything we discussed within the lecture and discussed the main differences between the two images:
The differences between the two images are:
The second image refuses the tradition of objectifying women which had come about due to the fact that men were in charge of art and they way in which people were therefore depicted within it.
We were then shown an extract of John Berger's Ways Of Seeing, Episode 2:
Consumer culture is like an instructing machine that shows women the male fantasy, the males ideal woman. As a result of this women's subjectivity, their idea of self, is beginning to get closer to mens objectification of women.
To be naked is to be oneself, nude is seen as an object. To be seen nude, you will be seen as naked but not actually viewed as an person, as yourself. There is reciprocity evolving, in which we see people as objects, just as they do us.
We then began looking at the work of Rosalind Coward, a postfeminist writer. She talks about various aspects of the male gaze, including anxiety and socially prescribed ideals. The fantasy of consumer culture perpetuates this idea of 'the look', based around the fear of rejection, forcing men to look; subordination and domination are the main elements of this. It isn't even to do with women being beautiful, but instead to do with this repeated idea, repeated myth, of women being controllable and subordinate. In order to satisfy your needs you consume, and these images perpetuate the ideal way to act and dress and talk, trapping women. Instead of realising how sexist and morally wrong this is, they resort to conforming to what is seen as the social norm.
She also talks about the idea of 'sex at a distance', which refers to the unattainable ideal of a woman. For both men and women this results in reality becoming a constant disappointment, constantly unsatisfied whilst chasing this unattainable idea life. Due to the distance and the refusal to see these women as people, the 'Peeping Tom' is able to stay in control. This works in a similar way to that of the patriarchal society that keeps telling itself that it is in control. Reality is so disappointing in comparison to this fantasy, sexual images are actually needed.
When thinking about these sexual images, a frequently occurring character is the school girl. Immature and easier to control; pornography is more about male power and patriarchal domination than eroticism. Beauty is an empty term, filled by society at any given moment. The understanding of beauty comes from a prescribed idea of 'beauty'. Radical feminists would never be described as being beautiful.
Marriage ensures the mans control over the woman, it is an invention of the patriarchal society.
We also spoke briefly about Freud and his theories in conjunction with the views of Coward:
Narcissism - Mirror stage and unified sense of self and identity. The rest of our lives is an attempt to chase this idea. Freud says that women are naturally more narcissistic, more concerned with their self image, then men. However, it is in fact narcissistic damage from the coercive cultural idea.
- Voyeurism (Freud)
- Sexual Desire
- Visual Culture (Art and Media)
- Looking is not neutral
- 'Men act, women appear' - J. Berger (Men have purpose and power whereas women are seen as objects)
We then looked at a few images from the lecture and discussed them in more detail, like this painting by Hans Memling in 1485, named 'Vanity':
In this image, it is made to seem as though it is ok to look at her because she is in fact looking at herself. This is where the name 'vanity' came from, and by naming it this it shows a clear attempt on the artists behalf to shift the blame onto the woman herself. Being a painting from 1485, it is a very clear representation of the patriarchal society that they then lived in. Most artists were men, and most of the consumers of art were men, yet most of these paintings featured naked women. This allowed men to hang these images on their wall and get a constant reassurance and sense of security within his own masculinity and power. It enabled the men to physically own a woman without being challenged, fulfilling their voyeuristic desires. The use of the mirror within the painting allows the woman to check that you're still looking at her; this being a common device used within many paintings from this era.
In the lecture, we also looked at these two images and compared them. We went through everything we discussed within the lecture and discussed the main differences between the two images:
Titian's Venus of Urbino, 1538
Olympia, 1863
The differences between the two images are:
- The gaze
- Hand placement
- Both images of Goddesses - The first image is a sexually available woman and the second image is of a prostitute.
- The first image is unchallenging and a fantasy, whereas the second image is a challenge to their stable view. She seems to be more in control and much less sexually available in comparison to how they would imagine it. (The cat in the image represents independence whereas the dog symbolises loyalty)
The second image refuses the tradition of objectifying women which had come about due to the fact that men were in charge of art and they way in which people were therefore depicted within it.
We were then shown an extract of John Berger's Ways Of Seeing, Episode 2:
Consumer culture is like an instructing machine that shows women the male fantasy, the males ideal woman. As a result of this women's subjectivity, their idea of self, is beginning to get closer to mens objectification of women.
To be naked is to be oneself, nude is seen as an object. To be seen nude, you will be seen as naked but not actually viewed as an person, as yourself. There is reciprocity evolving, in which we see people as objects, just as they do us.
We then began looking at the work of Rosalind Coward, a postfeminist writer. She talks about various aspects of the male gaze, including anxiety and socially prescribed ideals. The fantasy of consumer culture perpetuates this idea of 'the look', based around the fear of rejection, forcing men to look; subordination and domination are the main elements of this. It isn't even to do with women being beautiful, but instead to do with this repeated idea, repeated myth, of women being controllable and subordinate. In order to satisfy your needs you consume, and these images perpetuate the ideal way to act and dress and talk, trapping women. Instead of realising how sexist and morally wrong this is, they resort to conforming to what is seen as the social norm.
She also talks about the idea of 'sex at a distance', which refers to the unattainable ideal of a woman. For both men and women this results in reality becoming a constant disappointment, constantly unsatisfied whilst chasing this unattainable idea life. Due to the distance and the refusal to see these women as people, the 'Peeping Tom' is able to stay in control. This works in a similar way to that of the patriarchal society that keeps telling itself that it is in control. Reality is so disappointing in comparison to this fantasy, sexual images are actually needed.
When thinking about these sexual images, a frequently occurring character is the school girl. Immature and easier to control; pornography is more about male power and patriarchal domination than eroticism. Beauty is an empty term, filled by society at any given moment. The understanding of beauty comes from a prescribed idea of 'beauty'. Radical feminists would never be described as being beautiful.
Marriage ensures the mans control over the woman, it is an invention of the patriarchal society.
We also spoke briefly about Freud and his theories in conjunction with the views of Coward:
Narcissism - Mirror stage and unified sense of self and identity. The rest of our lives is an attempt to chase this idea. Freud says that women are naturally more narcissistic, more concerned with their self image, then men. However, it is in fact narcissistic damage from the coercive cultural idea.
'Unless we measure up, we will not be loved'
There is an increased anxiety to be perfect. This then creates a market that produces adverts to perpetuate this, thus creating a cycle of profit. Now, there is a tendency to objectify men in the same way; this not being a victory for anyone. It will simply result in everyone being a part of a society that is constantly chasing this unreal ideal.
TASK: Analyse an advert that shows the male gaze, using 5 quotes from R. Coward (500 Words). For this task, I have chosen to look at an advertisement for Wonderbra:
OUGD 501 - Identity and 'Otherness'
At the start of this session, we discussed and recapped the lecture that we had on identity:
Looking at identity formation, we began talking about a process from psychoanalysis by Jacques Lacan. In this process, he derived that there were two stages: the 'hommelette' stage and the 'mirror' stage. When you are born, you have no concept of self and no self awareness; this is referred to as the 'hommelette' stage. When a baby see's itself in a mirror, it realises that it is a whole thing, a sentient being. Along with this realisation comes great elation, and this is known as the 'mirror stage'. This leads to a conflict between how we see ourselves and what we want to be. We are always trying to affirm our sense of self and everything we do is an attempt to secure a solid identity.
Sense of self built on subjectivity:
'Otherness' and constructing the 'other':
There are many problems with this way of thinking, such as we measure ourselves against others. 'I am a man because I am not a woman'. We reduce others in order to secure our own identities: 'I am a cowboy, and everyone else who isn't is therefore less of a man'. We end up securing own our identities at the expense of others. In the same way that we create our identities, so does the rest of society. Examples of 'othering' in society include:
- Essentialism - People are born with certain characteristics, no matter what you do this cannot be changed.
- Anti-Essentialism - This is about the way that society shapes who we are, not our genetics.
- Social classes and the way that they are portrayed and perceived, looking at the work of photographers such as Martin Parr.
Otherness in visual representations:
- Creation of identities
- Concepts of 'Otherness'
- Analysis of visual example
Identity is all about who we think we are and how others perceive who we are. Sometimes, these two perspectives are different which results in people being perceived differently to how they perceive themselves. We discussed the idea of factors that make you, you. This is linked to the idea of Nature vs Nurture, which is an argument between whether it is you genetics that make you who you are, or whether it is your surroundings that shape you as an individual. These are what we came up with as a group:
- Appearance
- Friends
- Family
- Visual Culture
- Morals and beliefs
- Society
- Social Networks
- Physical attributes
- DNA
- Clothing
- Fears
- Sense of humour
- Skills and attributes
- Religion and beliefs
- Background/Upbringing
- Gender
- Sexuality
Is identity more involved with the way in which others perceive who you are, as opposed to your actual genetics; or is it to do with your personality and human characteristics instead of these superficial things. We then began discussing the different ways in which people express their identities, this is the list that we compiled:
- Clothes (Subculture)
- Music (Subculture)
- Behaviour/Attitude
- Occupation
- Body Modification
- Hobbies
- Lifestyle Choices
- Conspicuous consumption
- Job (different to career/profession)
- Emotional availability
- Social Networking
- Reality vs Projected identity
We then had a debate about 'Essentialism vs Anti-Essentialism'. However, we quickly realised that there is no simple answer to this discussion. Within this discussion, we talked about Stuart Hall's 'Circuit of Culture', in which he describes being British yet not being perceived as British by everyone else. This is a visual interpretation of identity from 'Circuit of Culture', each of these categories are separate yet all relate and are inseparable:
Looking at identity formation, we began talking about a process from psychoanalysis by Jacques Lacan. In this process, he derived that there were two stages: the 'hommelette' stage and the 'mirror' stage. When you are born, you have no concept of self and no self awareness; this is referred to as the 'hommelette' stage. When a baby see's itself in a mirror, it realises that it is a whole thing, a sentient being. Along with this realisation comes great elation, and this is known as the 'mirror stage'. This leads to a conflict between how we see ourselves and what we want to be. We are always trying to affirm our sense of self and everything we do is an attempt to secure a solid identity.
Sense of self built on subjectivity:
- An illusion of wholeness - not to communicate with the world, but with ourselves.
- Receiving views from others - 'you are only a Goth when other people recognise you as a Goth'.
'Otherness' and constructing the 'other':
There are many problems with this way of thinking, such as we measure ourselves against others. 'I am a man because I am not a woman'. We reduce others in order to secure our own identities: 'I am a cowboy, and everyone else who isn't is therefore less of a man'. We end up securing own our identities at the expense of others. In the same way that we create our identities, so does the rest of society. Examples of 'othering' in society include:
- Hooligans gain stable identities by becoming part of something and radically 'othering' everyone else.
- Homophobia is a very good example of the way in which society 'others' various groups of people. The fear that we are not heterosexual enough causes people to 'other' those that are homosexual in an attempt to secure their identity.
TASK: Find an example of 'othering' - Securing our identities at the expense of some other peoples identity (500 words). For this task, I have chosen to look at the 'Get A Girlfriend' campaign by Axe:
Lynx, or Axe as it is known across the world, is a
multinational corporation that reaches a global audience every day. Within many of their campaigns, they employ
certain techniques and methods in order to secure the identities of their
clients. To do this, they have made a conscious decision to actively ‘other’
various groups of people as an attempt to persuade a wider audience to buy into
their product and the lifestyle that comes along with it.
‘Othering’
is a technique in which a certain group of people are portrayed in a negative
way in order to secure the identity of the target audience. In this case, the
group that is being ‘othered’, made to seem inferior, is represented as being
the geek, which is done so that the target audience feel as though they are more
valuable by purchasing this product. This example of othering focuses on the
relationships that we have with those around us, implying that by purchasing
this product you are increasing your sexual attraction and enabling yourself to
get a girlfriend and find love. ‘If you are able to buy this product
you will be loveable. If you cannot buy it, you will be less lovable.’ (Berger,
Page 144). It states that these people do not use this product and these people
do not have a girlfriend, and in order for you to get a girlfriend you must
purchase this product. It employs this method of othering in order to persuade
you to purchase this product and therefore secure your identity as an
attractive alpha male.
When thinking about the process of psychoanalysis by Jacques Lacan,
and the two stages of identity formation, the idea of othering is based around
the mirror stage and the way in which our sense of self, our subjectivity, is
built on receiving views from others. ‘One can only see oneself as one thinks others see one’ (Sarup, Page 13).
In order for us to feel secure within ourselves, we must first feel secure
within society; othering is a way in which people can solidify their place
within the social hierarchy and in turn secure their own identities. This
example shows the way that advertising is used in order for people to buy into
a system in which those who buy certain products are seen as being more valuable,
important parts of society; those who do not purchase these products are
therefore othered and shown to be inferior.
Harvard Referencing:
Sarup, M (1993) Post-Structuralism and Postmodernism, Harvester, Hemel
Hempstead.
Berger, J. (1972) 'Ways of Seeing', 1st Edition, Penguin Books.
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